Andriotis, K. (2009). The Morphology of a Coastal Cretan Municipality. In: Dowling, R. and Pforr, C. (eds.), Coastal Tourism Development: Planning & Management Issues, Cognizant. more

This is the pre-published version – For final version see: Andriotis, K. (2009). The Morphology of a Coastal Cretan Municipality. In: Dowling, R. and Pforr, C. (eds.), Coastal Tourism Development: Planning & Management Issues, Cognizant. Introduction After the Second World War the importance of the Mediterranean islands for the touristic movement radiating mainly from Western Europe has enormously increased. This growing demand has opened new opportunities for the modernisation of these islands’ economic base and has been seen as a promising opportunity for reducing the prosperity gap between themselves and developed countries. An increase in the real income of host communities, generation of employment, heritage and environmental preservation, creation of infrastructure, cultural communication and political stability via tourism expansion as well as the limited alternatives for industrialisation and self-sustaining growth have led most (if not all) Mediterranean island governments to use tourism as a weapon for fighting underdevelopment (Andriotis, 2004; Carli, 1994; Ioannides, Apostolopoulos & Sonmez, 2001). While tourism has undoubtedly brought substantial rewards to Mediterranean island destinations, it has often been accompanied by some inherent disadvantages and costs resulting from their insular character and uncontrolled tourism expansion. These include accessibility difficulties, external dependency for their resources, lack of autonomy in decision-making, high leakage rates of foreign exchange earnings, dramatic landscape changes and socio-cultural and environmental problems (Akis, Peristianis & Warner, 1996; Andriotis, 2001; 2002; 2004; Andronikos, 1979; 1986; Apostolopoulos, 1994; Apostolopoulos & Sönmez, 1999; Boissevain, 1977; 1979; 1996; Briassoulis, 2003; Briguglio & Briguglio, 1996; Ioannides, 1992; 1995a; 1995b; Kammas, 1993; Lockhart & Ashton, 1990; Lockhart, 1997; Loukissas, 1978; 1982; Marinos, 1983; Oglethorpe, 1984; 1985; Young, 1983; Zarkia, 1996). Crete, with a population of approximately 603,000 inhabitants, is the largest Greek island and the fifth largest in the Mediterranean. With a coastline of 1,300 km, 15 percent of which consists of sandy beaches, and rich cultural and environmental resources, the expansion of the Cretan tourism industry was inevitable (Anagnostopoulou et al., 1996; Andriotis, 2003c). In 2005, more than 2.5 million tourists visited the island, approximately 12 million overnights were recorded and the island had more than 200 thousand beds (Hellenic National Tourism Organisation, 2006). Tourism activity in Crete has resulted in various impacts to the economy, society, culture, and environment. As a result, there is an increasing research evaluating these impacts. Most of this research has been focused on community attitudes (Andriotis, 2000; 2002; 2004; Andriotis & Vaughan, 2003; Terkenli, 2001); seasonality (Andriotis, 2003a; 2005; Donatos & Zairis, 1991); dependency on tour operators (Andriotis, 2003a; 2003b); tourist preferences (Andriotis, Agiomirgianakis & Mihiotis, 2007a; 2007b); regional concentration of tourism activity (Andriotis 2006a) as well as the morphological change of the coastal landscape (Andriotis, 2003c; 2006b; Briassoulis, 2003). Despite the increased interest in the impacts of tourism on Crete, most research, with only few exceptions (e.g. Kousis, 1984; 1989; Terkenli, 2001), has been focused on the island as a whole, with only limited research on specific 1 locations. This negligence of past research is mainly due to the fact that data for single insular coastal municipalities are aggregated within the island as a whole and cannot be separated. Thus, most past research on the island of Crete is generic and does not provide proposals for the amelioration of tourism development problems for specific coastal municipalities. It is the aim of this chapter to overcome this research negligence by taking as a case the municipality of Hersonissos, located on the north coast of Crete (Figure 1). In doing so this chapter reviews the morphology of the municipality, discusses the processes having affected its morphology, and provides recommendations on the ways to preserve and enhance its current morphology, and improve the quality of life for residents and visitors alike. Figure 1: Map of Crete This chapter is divided into five sections. Following this introduction, section two reviews tourism development in the municipality of Hersonissos. Section three presents its morphology in relation to tourism induced development. Section four discusses the processes and human actions having affected the morphology of the municipality. The final section provides the conclusions and the policy implications of the study. Tourism in the Municipality of Hersonissons During the 1960s the municipality of Hersonissos was comprised of a handful of small villages (Romanos, Triantafillou & Chifos, 2003). It was this period that the first hotels opened in coastal locations. In the years that followed, the Greek government has considered Crete a top priority area for the systematic development of tourism (Andriotis, 2003), and a series of development plans concerning the tourism sector of the municipality of Hersonissos were given high priority. As a result of the various incentives given for relevant investment projects, the municipality with 25,886 hotel beds, representing 17.6% of the island’s total, and 19,969 beds in rented rooms and apartments, representing 37.7% of the island's total, is among the major coastal resorts of the island. In addition to the accommodation sector, the tourism industry of the municipality consists of two camping gounds with 282 sites, 29 travel agencies, 47 car rentals with 3,290 cars, 35 bike rentals with 1,125 bikes, 340 catering establishments, approximately 300 shops, two water parks and one 18 hole golf course. However, the tourism industry of the municipality faces serious problems, similar to those faced by most resorts of the island. These include: uncontrolled expansion of tourism activity, dependency on tour operators, seasonality, a considerable number of undeclared unlicensed units and rooms, known as ‘parahoteleria’, and limited infrastructure (Andriotis, 2001; Andriotis, 2003a; Andriotis, 2003b; Andriotis, 2005; Andriotis & Vaughan, 2004) 2 The land area of Hersonissos is 70,984 stremmas (1 stremma = 1,000 m2 = 0.24 acres = 0.1 hectare), and includes six communities: Limenas Hersonissou, Hersonissos, Potamies, Abdou, Gonies and Kera. Among these communities, Limenas Hersonissou is where the majority of tourist facilities is located. All other communities are mainly rural with minor tourist development. The main strengths of the municipality for the expansion of its tourism industry include its close proximity to the airport of Heraklion, mild climate, beautiful landscape, antiquities and the variety of facilities offered to the tourist traffic. The resort attracts every summer thousands of tourists, mostly from Western Europe. Although in the past these tourists combined their visit with culture, nowadays culture is not always a priority. Today, swimming in the crystal Mediterranean Sea, sunbathing, sipping wine or ouzo in a taverna next to the sea, and having fun in a night club are among the main activities of tourists visiting the coastal areas of Hersonissos. Thus, tourists today are mainly attracted by the four S' (sea, sun, sand and sex) offered at a reasonable cost. Up to the mid sixties agriculture was the main activity of the municipality. However, after the seventies when the influx of tourists increased, the situation has changed, mainly in the coastal area. It is estimated that slightly more than half of the municipality's population is employed in the tertiary sector, mainly due to increased tourist arrivals, since tourism is a part of the tertiary sector. Agriculture also plays an important role in the interior of the municipality with emphasis placed on the cultivation of olives. Even those residents employed in tourism, during winter are involved in agricultural activities. Thus, much of the tourism workforce in the municipality displays pluriactivity. This pluriactivity is considered beneficial, since there is a seasonal balance between tourism and agriculture that increases income and employment opportunities for locals (Andiotis & Vaughan, 2007). The coastal areas of Hersonissos attract during the summer season a large number of incoming workforce. For instance, although the local population in Limenas Hersonisou was in 1995 approximately 4,000, the incoming workforce during the summer season exceeded 10,000 employees (Association of Hellenic Tourist Enterprises, 1995). Tourism has also resulted in an increase of the permanent population. In 1991, the municipality had 7,404 inhabitants, while ten years later its population has increased to 8,497 people, an increase of 14.8% (Table 1). However, despite the generation of employment through tourism, the unemployment rate in the municipality is 19.7%, 9% higher than that of the island’s total. Table 1: Population in the municipality of Hersonissos by community (19912001) Population Community Avdou Gonies Kera Potemies Hersonissos Limenas Hersonissou TOTAL 1991 446 537 151 548 1,647 4,075 7,404 2001 431 519 161 610 2,468 4,308 8,497 Source: NSSG (2005) Morphology of the Municipality In the tourism literature there is a plethora of studies on the morphology of coastal resorts (Andriotis, 2006; Barrett, 1958; Bollerey, 1986; Lavery, 1971; Meyer3 Arendt, 1990; Pearce, 1978; Pigram, 1977; Smith, 1991; 1992a; 1992b; Stansfield, 1969; 1993; Stansfield & Rickert, 1970; Weaver, 1993). According to these studies the nucleus of development of coastal resorts is the beachfront surrounded by various zones of tourist activity, including the Central Business District (CBD) and the Recreational Business District (RBD). In the case of Crete, Andriotis (2003c) identifies three main zones of tourism activity, having emerged as a result of unplanned and uncontrolled development. These zones include: the high-density tourism activity zone, the low-density tourism activity zone and the rural zone (Figure 2). These zones are analysed further below in relation to the municipality of Hersonissos. Figure 2: Morphological zones of typical Cretan coastal resorts Source: Andriotis (2003). Beachfront. For Hersonissos, as in most coastal resorts worldwide, the nucleus of development is the beachfront, where beach width has been reduced through the construction of roads and private developments built on the immediate seashore (Figure 3). Due to the increased construction of tourism enterprises only a small number of beach access points exists, and as a result, access for tourists to the beach is restricted. A major part of the beachfront is the port of Hersonissos. In the words of Romanos, Triantafillou & Chifos (2003) the port is: A major landmark and place for both local boats and tour boats, (and) ... remains as a strong visual and aesthetic element that helps characterize Limenas. The port provides sources of maritime tourism with the opportunity to directly market this type of activity to visitors of Limenas. From here, boats that carry flocks of tourist seeking maritime adventure tourism leave and return on a regular basis (p. 2.14). 4 Figure 3: The beachfront and the beach road of Hersonissos Beach road. The main area of tourist consumption is the beach road, where for the convenience of tourists, limited vehicular access is allowed during the high season. This beach road is a major pedestrian corridor at all times of the day that follows the shoreline along the eastern periphery of the port (Romanos, Triantafillou & Chifos, 2003). The function of the beach road is not only to link the beach and the sea with the hotels, but becomes in its turn a place of consumption, of both objects and places. It is the main place of tourism activity where holidaymakers walk, meet, talk, shop, eat and play a variety of games. Many cafes and restaurants, hand in hand with Cretan art, leather goods, souvenir shops and goldsmith’s shops create a Recreational Business District (RBD), where small accommodation establishments are located, and some others are found on back streets. At night, nightclubs and bars form the majority of the nightlife. The RBD becomes extended in both directions from its initial core where larger hotels and second homes exist, creating a virtual ribbon development. Main road. At a distance from the beach road the main road exists (Figure 4) where accommodation establishments, restaurants, bars, shops, and services are provided for the tourist traffic. This road is the main road for access to the resort and transfer to and from the airport and the port of Heraklion as well as the urban centres of the island. It includes the bus station, the community office, the post office, banks, drug stores, gasoline stations, groceries, bakeries, mini markets as well as tourist shops, bars and restaurants. However, lack of planning has resulted in serious traffic problems. According to Romanos, Triantafillou & Chifos (2003) "fast-moving traffic on the main road, combined with cars parked along its side, makes conditions dangerous for pedestrians and disrupts local vehicular movement (p.3-2)". 5 Figure 4: The main road of Limenas Hersonissou Interior of the resort. The beach road, as well as the main road, contain only scattered pockets of residences. This happens because the once traditional village houses and small shops have been converted into rented rooms, bars, restaurants and tourist shops for tourist consumption. As a result, residences for locals and the seasonal immigrant workforce as well as a few small accommodation establishments mostly offering rooms to rent, occupy the area after the main road. Roads in this area, are very narrow, pavements almost non-existent, and parking spaces scarce making locals’ life difficult (Figure 5). According to Andriotis (2003, p. 72): Only adventurous tourists are apt to wander in this zone to experience what they consider authentic. The majority prefers to walk only short distances from their accommodation establishments. “Because of the physical hardship associated with the enervating effects of the climate; (tourists) may prefer to stay in areas where they will encounter desirable shops or attractions; and they may perceive areas with a large number of locals as difficult” (Weaver 1993, p. 138). Interior villages. In Hersonissos rural places, such as the traditional villages are also visited by tourists, usually on day trips. A network of arterial roads connects the resort with rural areas that often attract tourists, pursuing to experience the culture and life of the islanders on day trips. Two of these villages, Koutouloufari and Piskopiano, located in close proximity to the resort, have been transformed partially for tourism consumption. Although many of the interior villages have kept their rich cultural heritage (Figure 6), they are losing their population due to migration of the local population to the coastal area of Hersonissos and the city of Heraklion, in the search for better life and employment opportunities. In practice, the economy of most rural areas is directed to farming and small industry, with tourism playing a secondary role in their economy. 6 Figure 5: Limenas Hersonissou - Interior of the resort Figure 6: Koutouloufari - Traditional village in the municipality of Hersonissos Artificial attractions. Large pieces of vacant land have provided potential for development and are being used as part of a strategy to attract better quality tourists through the diversification of the tourism product. Thus, the exploitation of previously untapped resources has resulted in the implantation of artificial attractions, such as a golf course and water parks (Figure 7). However, golf courses in Crete have been criticized for requiring a substantial amount of land, replacing natural vegetative cover by artificially-created lawns and disrupting the scarce resources of the island water (Andriotis 2007c; Briassoulis 2005; 2007). Therefore, non-governmental organisations are against their construction, insisting that they do not fit with the Cretan environment. 7 Figure 7: Water park and golf course Processes of Morphological Change The processes and human actions, which have occurred from one period to another, and have affected the morphology of the municipality of Hersonissos, are discussed below. Greece has almost no zoning and land registry system. Also, in the past the main tools to which the state resorted for dealing with the problem of illegal land development were reactive rather than proactive (Tsoulouvis, 1998, p. 18). Thus, zoning and construction laws have been openly ignored because they contradict market forces and social pressures (Patton & Sophoulis, 1983, p. 263) to the extent that illegal building is long-standing in the municipality of Hersonissos. As Peterson & McCarthy (1990, p.168) report this is a result "of the practice of Greek political parties in electoral campaigns making promises and then enacting statutes declaring existing illegally constructed buildings to be in compliance with the law”. Thus, for many years, one could build any type of accommodation as long as modest building restrictions were met (Peterson & McCarthy, 1990). A law will be obeyed only if citizens accept it; it has been proven that once a ‘literally unauthorized arbitrary' construction has been erected, no one will tear it, any restrictions undertaken are unsuccessful in discouraging land development (Herzfeld, 1991; Patton & Sophoulis, 1983). As a result, there is a highly visible physical transformation of the municipality of Hersonissos, as the building of more and more tourist enterprises dots the landscape. In practice, the lack of physical planning and the high concentration of buildings have transformed Limenas Hersonissou, the coastal resort, and some interior villages into urban space to the extent that today only low budget tourists visit them. In Greece land ownership is one means to wealth and a way to climb the social hierarchy (Patton & Sophoulis, 1983). Thus, after the expansion of tourism, that prices of land nearest to the beach increased, a more intensive form of land use was taking place. Under free market conditions, many coastal locations of Hersonissos have been occupied by tourism businesses that are able to maximize landowners’ profit. On the other hand, there is a lack of green and public areas. In order to support the high land prices the first line buildings are high-rise, constituting a visual barrier between the interior buildings and the beach. Buildings’ architecture mainly on the coast of the municipality has been far removed from the traditional Cretan style. Reinforced concrete is simple to use and relatively 8 inexpensive. As a result, Cretans have abandoned traditional building materials such as stone and wood. In practice, the local architectural and traditional character has been lost only to be replaced by modern structures. As a result, the municipality lacks in authenticity and traditional character. Many of these changes are a result of tour operators' initiatives who have used the island as cheap mass tourism destination to the extent that they contributed to the development of a destination, almost identical to most Mediterranean resorts. Conclusion Ribbon development, degraded residential areas, loss of natural landscape, coastal pollution and insufficient infrastructure are some of the negative impacts of the unplanned evolution of the municipality of Hersonissos, “with the hinterland having been affected in a roughly inversely proportionate way to its distance from the coast (Terkenli, 2000, p.4)". Unregulated growth has resulted in environmental degradation including narrow streets, lack of sidewalks and a haphazard road network, all of them resulting in pedestrian and vehicle conflicts, lack of parking space, signage problems, and limited beach width (Romanos, Triantafillou & Chifos 2003). To overcome some of these problems rehabilitation of the environment is required. Limenas Hersonissou and some interior villages do not currently have much public space, and they lack green space. Thus, increase in the existing green areas, though the creation of parks on the periphery of the settlements will enhance the quality of life for residents and visitors alike. To alleviate pedestrian and vehicular congestion, new arterial roads should be added to the current road network. In addition, several of the existing roads should be realigned. To alleviate congestion from parked vehicles, parking areas should be constructed. Also the visual environment should be improved by stronger emphasis on traditionalism and tighter enforcement of building regulations. The interior villages, mainly those not involved in tourism, face depopulation. To retain the host population to remain in their villages various economic incentives are required. The cost of restoration for old buildings is high. Thus, without incentives doing so, people will abandon traditional buildings and will continue to construct modern ones. According to Romanos, Triantafillou & Chifos (2003): To address irresponsible restorations and use of unsightly building materials within the core of the villages, it would be beneficial to apply to the central government for “traditional village” status, so that protective building regulations would be employed. If for other reasons this would not be feasible, then an attempt should be made for the villages to designate traditional districts and protect them by specifying acceptable architectural designs and building materials. Also, to support rural residents to stay in their villages it is important to provide financial incentives to invest in the establishment of small tourist enterprises. An effort should be made for the spreading of tourist accommodation facilities in the interior villages. More small-scale tourist facilities and tourism centers should be developed in these, incorporating small traditional lodgings, restaurants, shops selling local products and enterprises offering suitable alternative opportunities, as substitutes to the 4S’ offerings. Great importance should be given to the attraction of alternative forms of tourism, such as cultural, agro and eco-tourism, mountain and trekking tourism. In doing so, there is a need for financial assistance policies to create the 9 necessary infrastructure and facilities. Furthermore, the natural and cultural elements of the municipality, such as watermills, natural springs, monasteries, mountains, etc. should be maintained and used in a sustainable manner. However, tourism expansion in the hinterland should not come at the expense of destroying its natural and cultural environment. Only if there is continuous and unprejudiced control, will future investments be environmentally-friendly, directed to the development of alternative and cultural forms of tourism and inspired by local culture and architectural tradition. In achieving the aim of sustainable development, the proposed interventions should be applied with consistency, continuity and efficiency. Developers and planners should realize that people are attracted by the destination’s resources, and the tourism industry depends not only on the quantity but also the quality of these resources, something that in the past has been ignored in the case of Hersonissos. Hersonissos, like any other community has certain limits. Growth beyond these limits can exceed the carrying capacity for the local community and cause disastrous environmental effects. This can have a major influence on the future success of the destination, since community attitudes and environmental quality are the most essential determinants of visitor satisfaction and repeat visitation (Doggart & Doggart, 1996). To conclude, to use tourism as a low impact strategy for the municipality of Hersonissos, a co-ordinated master plan with specific policies backed by the whole community should be formulated. This plan should be directed towards the elimination of negative tourism impacts and should address policy aspects and strategies of future tourism development. Only then will harmonious tourism development that increases benefits for the local community be feasible and the morphology of the municipality be improved. References Akis, S., Peristianis, N., and Warner, J. (1996) Residents’ attitudes to tourism development: the case of Cyprus. Tourism Management, 17(7), 481-04. Anagnostopoulou, K., Arapis, T., Bouchy, I. and Micha, I. (1996). Tourism and the Structural Funds - The Case for Environmental Integration. Athens: RSPB. Andriotis, K. (2000). Local Community Perceptions of Tourism as a Development Tool: The Island of Crete. PhD thesis. Bournemouth: Bournemouth University. Andriotis, K. (2001). Tourism planning and development in Crete. Recent tourism policies and their efficacy. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 9(4), 298-316. Andriotis, K. (2002). Residents’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction with public sector governance. The Cretan case. Tourism and Hospitality Research: The Surrey Quarterly Review, 4(1), 53-68. Andriotis, K. (2003a). Problems faced by the Cretan tourism industry as perceived by the business sector. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal, 51(1), 21-30. Andriotis, K. (2003b). Dependency on tour operators. Problem faced by the Cretan tourism businesses and the views of their owners/managers. International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Administration, 2003, 4(3), 23-48. Andriotis, K. (2003c). Coastal resorts morphology: The Cretan experience. Tourism Recreation Research, 28(1), 67-76. Andriotis, K. (2004) The perceived impact of tourism development by Cretan residents. Tourism and Hospitality Planning and Development, 1(2), 1-22. 10 Andriotis, K. (2005). Seasonality in Crete. Problem or a way of life? Tourism Economics, 11(2), 207-227. Andriotis, K. (2006a). Researching the development gap between the hinterland and the coast - Evidence from the island of Crete. Tourism Management, 27(4), 629-639. Andriotis, K. (2006b). Host, guests, politics and coastal resorts morphological change in Crete. Annals οf Tourism Research, 33(4), 1079-1098. Andriotis, K., & Vaughan D.R. (2003). Urban residents’ attitudes towards tourism development: The case of Crete. Journal of Travel Research, 42(2), 172-185. Andriotis, K., & Vaughan D.R. (2004). The tourism workforce and policy: Exploring the assumptions using Crete as the case study. Current Issues in Tourism, 7, 66-87. Andriotis, K., Agiomirgianakis, G., & Mihiotis, Α. (2007a). Tourist vacation preferences - The Case of mass tourists to Crete. Tourism Analysis, 12(3), (forthcoming). Andriotis, K., Agiomirgianakis, G., & Mihiotis, Α. (2007b) Tourist satisfaction - A factor-cluster segmentation approach. Journal of Vacation Marketing, (forthcoming). Andronicos, A. (1979) Tourism in Cyprus. In de Kadt, E, (ed) Tourism: Passport to Development? Oxford: Oxford University Press. Andronikos, A. (1986). Cyprus: Management of the tourist sector. Tourism Management, 7(2), 127-29. Apostolopoulos, Y. (1994). The Perceived Effects of Tourism Industry Development: A Comparison of two Hellenic Islands. PhD thesis. The University of Connecticut: Ann Arbor MI. Apostolopoulos, Y., & Sönmez, S.F. (1999) From farmers and shepherds to shopkeepers and hoteliers: Constituency-differentiated experiences of endogenous tourism in the Greek island of Zakynthos. Tourism Research, 1 (6), 413-27. Association of Hellenic Tourist Enterprises 1995 Study of Qualitative Upgrading of Tourist Resorts - Pilot Study Hersonissos, (in Greek). Athens: AHTE. Barrett, J.A. 1958. The Seaside Resort Towns of England and Wales. PhD thesis. London, University of London. Boissevain, J. (1977) Tourism and development in Malta. Development and Change, 8, 523-38. Boissevain, J. (1979) The impact of tourism on a dependent island: Gozo, Malta. Annals of Tourism Research, 6(1), 76-90. Boissevain, J. (1996) ‘But we live here!’ Perspectives on cultural tourism in Malta. In Briguglio, L., Butler, R., Harison, D. & Filho, W.L. (eds) Sustainable Tourism in Islands and Small States: Case studies, (pp. 220-40), London: Pinter. Bollerey, F. 1986. The urbanisation of the shore. From fishing-village to sea-side resort. Daidalos, 20, 88-97. Briassoulis, H. (2003). Crete: Endowed by nature, privileged by geography, threatened by tourism? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 11(2&3), 97-115. Briassoulis, H. (2005). Questions for the construction of golf course. Patris 27 June. Briassoulis, H. (2007). Golf-centered development in coastal Mediterranean Europe: A soft sustainability test. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15(5), 441-462. Briguglio, L., & Briguglio, M. (1996). Sustainable tourism in Maltese islands., In Briguglio, L., Butler, R., Harison, D, & Filho, W.L. (eds) Sustainable 11 Tourism in Islands and Small States: Case Studies, (pp. 162-79), Pinter: London. Carli, M.R. (ed). (1994). Economic and Population Trends in the Mediterranean Islands. Napoli: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane. Doggart, C., & Doggart, N. (1996). Environmental impacts of tourism in developing countries. Travel and Tourism Analyst, 2, 71-86. Donatos, G., & Zairis, P., (1991). Seasonality of foreign tourism in the Greek island of Crete. Annals of Tourism Research, 18(3), 515-519. Hellenic National Tourism Organisation (2006). Statistics. Athens: HNTO. Herzfeld, M. (1991). A Place of History: Social and Monumental Time in a Cretan Town. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Ioannides, D. (1992) Tourism development agents: the Cypriot resort cycle. Annals of Tourism Research, 19(4), 711-31. Ioannides, D. (1995a) Planning for international tourism in less developed countries: Towards sustainability? Journal of Planning Literature, 9(3), 235-59. Ioannides, D. (1995b) A flawed implementation of sustainable tourism: the experience of Akamas, Cyprus. Tourism Management, 16(8), 583-592. Ioannides, D., Apostolopoulos, Y., & Sonmez, S.F. (eds). (2001). Mediterranean Islands and Sustainable Tourism Development. Practices, Management and Policies. London: Cassel. Kammas, M. (1993) The positive and negative effects of tourism development in Cyprus. Cyprus Review, 5(1), 70-89. Kousis, M. (1984) Tourism as an Agent of Social Change in a Rural Cretan Community. PhD Thesis, Michingham: University of Michinghan. Lavery, P. 1971. Resorts and recreation. In Lavery, P. (ed.) Recreational Geography, (pp. 167-195), New York: Wiley. Lockhart, D.G. (1997a) Tourism to Malta and Cyprus. In Lockhart, D.G., & Drakakis-Smith, D. (eds) Island Tourism: Trends and Prospects, (pp.152-80), London and New York: Pinter. Lockhart, D.G., & Ashton, S. (1990) Tourism in Malta. Scottish Geographical Magazine, 10(1), 22-32. Loukissas, P.J. (1978) Tourism and environment in conflict: The case of the Greek island of Mykonos. In Tourism and Economic: Studies in Third World Societies, Vol, 6, (pp, 105-32), Williamsburg: VA: College of William and Mary. Loukissas, P.J. (1982) Tourism’s regional development impacts: A comparative analysis of the Greek islands. Annals of Tourism Research, 9(4), 523-41. Marinos, P. (1983). Small islands tourism: the case of Zakynthos, Greece. Tourism Management, 4(3), 212-215. Meyer-Arendt, K.J. (1990). Recreational business districts in Gulf of Mexico seaside resorts. Journal of Cultural Geography, 11, 39-55. Oglethorpe, M. (1984) Tourism in Malta: a crisis of dependence. Leisure Studies, 3, 147-62. Oglethorpe, M. (1985) Tourism in a small island economy: the case of Malta. Tourism Management, 6(1), 23-31. Patton, C. and Sophoulis, C. (1983). Great Expectations: Illegal Land Development in Modern Greece. Ekistics, 301, 259-264. Pearce, D.G. 1978. Form and function in French resorts. Annals of Tourism Research 5(1), 142-156. 12 Peterson, C. and McCarthy, C. (1990). Greece Tackles Overbuilding in Tourism Areas. Environmental Conservation, 17, 166-168. Pigram, J.J. (1977). Beach resort morphology. Habitat International, 2(5/6), 525-541. Romanos, M., Triantafillou, M. and Chifos, C. (2003) Hersonissos 2003 Community and Regional Planning. University of Cincinnati Sustainable Development Group, unpublished. Smith, R.A. (1991). Beach resorts: A model of development evolution. Landscape and Urban Planning, 21, 189-210. Smith, R.A. (1992a). Review of integrated beach resort development in Southeast Asia. Land Use Policy, 9, 209-217. Smith, R.A. (1992b). Beach resort evolution: Implications for planning. Annals of Tourism Research, 19(2), 304-322. Stansfield, C.A. (1969). Recreational land use patterns within an American seaside resort. Tourist Review, 24(4), 128-136. Stansfield, C.A. (1993). Development of seaside resorts. In Khan, M., Olsen, M. and Var, T. (eds.) Encyclopedia of Hospitality and Tourism. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold. Stansfield, C.A., & Rickert, J.E. (1970). The recreational business district. Journal of Leisure Research, 2(4), 213-225. Terkenli, T. (2001). Local perceptions of tourism impacts on place identity: The case of Northern Crete. Tourism, 49(3), 229-240. Terkenli, T. (2000). Tourism and place identity: patterns of continuity and change in Hersonissos, Crete. Paper presented at the International Scientific Conference "Tourism on Islands and Specific Destinations", Chios, 14-17 Dec. Weaver, D.B. (1993). Model of urban tourism for small Caribbean islands. Geographical Review, 83(2), 134-140. Young, B. (1983). Touristisation of traditional Maltese fishing-farming villages. Tourism Management, 4(1), 35-41. 13